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?:abstract
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BACKGROUND: Heparin, a lifesaving blood thinner used in over 100 million surgical procedures worldwide annually, is currently isolated from over 700 million pigs andâ¯~â¯200 million cattle in slaughterhouses worldwide. Though animal-derived heparin has been in use over eight decades, it is a complex mixture that poses a risk for chemical adulteration, and its availability is highly vulnerable. Therefore, there is an urgent need in devising bioengineering approaches for the production of heparin polymers, especially low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), and thus, relying less on animal sources. One of the main challenges, however, is the rapid, cost-effective production of low molecular weight heparosan, a precursor of LMWH and size-defined heparosan oligosaccharides. Another challenge is N-sulfation of N-acetyl heparosan oligosaccharides efficiently, an essential modification required for subsequent enzymatic modifications, though chemical and enzymatic N-sulfation is effectively performed at the polymer level. METHODS: To devise a strategy to produce low molecular weight heparosan and heparosan oligosaccharides, several non-pathogenic E. coli strains are engineered by transforming the essential heparosan biosynthetic genes with or without the eliminase gene (elmA) from pathogenic E. coli K5. RESULTS: The metabolically engineered non-pathogenic strains are shown to produce ~5â¯kDa heparosan, a precursor for low molecular weight heparin, for the first time. Additionally, heparosan oligosaccharides of specific sizes ranging from tetrasaccharides to dodecasaccharides are directly generated, in a single step, from the recombinant bacterial strains that carry both heparosan biosynthetic genes and an eliminase gene. Various modifications, such as chemical N-sulfation of N-acetyl heparosan hexasaccharide following the selective protection reducing end GlcNAc residue, enzymatic C5-epimerization of N-sulfo heparosan tetrasaccharide and complete 6-O sulfation of N-sulfo heparosan hexasaccharide, are shown to be feasible. CONCLUSIONS: We engineered non-pathogenic E. coli strains to produce low molecular weight heparosan and a range of size-specific heparosan oligosaccharides in a controlled manner through modulating culture conditions. We have also shown various chemical and enzymatic modifications of heparosan oligosaccharides. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Heparosan is a precursor of heparin and the methods to produce low molecular weight heparosan is widely awaited. The methods described herein are promising and will pave the way for potential large scale production of low molecular weight heparin anticoagulants in the coming decade.
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